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| Fig. 1: Midshipman Rickover, AKA "Rickie", as seen in the 1922 Naval Academy yearbook. [3] (Courtesy of the U.S. Naval Academy) |
The "Father of the Nuclear Navy" had very humble beginnings. He was born Chaim Godalia Rickover to a Jewish tailor on the 27th of January, 1900 in Makow, Poland. In this region of the Russian Empire, large antisemitic movements were underway in the early 1900s. So, his father decided to move the Rickover family to the United States. The family eventually settled in Chicago where, now Hyman Rickover, would grow up. [1,2] Hyman continued his education beyond grade school, an opportunity many immigrant children did not have. However, Rickover worked afternoons and weekends for Western Union so that he could help his family financially as well as continue his education. As he was finishing High School, Rickover hoped to continue his education even further by attending college but knew his family would not be able to afford it.
To overcome the financial obstacle of college education, Rickover sought an appointment to the United States Naval Academy where the tuition is free. This is no easy task. In order to attend the service academy, an applicant must be nominated by a member of congress. Luckily, when Rickover worked for Western Union, he frequently delivered messages to Chicago Congressman, Adolph Sabath. Through these interactions, he developed a key relationship with the congressman who eventually would give Rickover the necessary nomination to attend the Naval Academy. [1] This story also provides a foreshadowing of how Rickover would use his relationships with members of Congress to make his own way.
The only obstacle left was the challenging entrance exams required to enter the Naval Academy. Displeased with the preparatory program provided, he instead isolated himself and studied in his own way in preparation. Though against the grain, his strategy proved successful and he passed the exams. Not doing things "by the book", as you will see, is a common theme in the distinguished gentleman's life. Thus, in the summer of 1918, Rickover entered the Naval Academy joining the Class of 1922 as a first-year midshipman, also known as a plebe. [1] Over his 4 years, "Rickie" developed a reputation for studying without end and not being too keen to go on dates. This sentiment was immortalized in the 1922 Naval Academy Yearbook also known as the Lucky Bag. [3] His senior photo can be seen in Fig. 1. In the summer of 1922, he graduated 107th in his class of 540 midshipmen and was commissioned as an Ensign in the U.S. Navy. [4]
Rickover's initial service in the fleet developed his interests in engineering. His first job would be aboard the destroyer USS La Vallette. While onboard, most of his free time was spent crawling through the engineering spaces learning the ins and outs of the steam plant used to power the ship. His growing interest in the topic eventually landed him the job as the engineering officer on board. His next billet would take him to the Battleship USS Nevada as the electrical officer. Here he learned all about the machinery associated with powering naval vessels. Continuing on this path, Rickover returned to Annapolis in 1927 for naval post-graduate education in Electrical Engineering and finished his master's degree in the subject at Colombia University. [1,2]
The next portion of Rickover's career connected him to the submarine community. Recognizing the relationship between electrical engineering and the unique challenges posed by the early submarine community, he volunteered for submarine duty in late 1929. [1,5] After undergoing basic submarine training, he was assigned as the Engineering and Electrical Officer on the submarine, S-48. He was quickly promoted to the navigator and executive officer (XO) of the boat. This meant he was second in command of the submarine. Shortly after, he qualified to take command of his own submarine. Unfortunately, he was not afforded this opportunity and was instead ordered to work in the office of the inspector of naval material in Philadelphia. Two years later he was assigned the assistant engineering officer role onboard the battleship, USS New Mexico.
Rickover's new role would put his engineering capabilities on display and eventually lead him to make a major shift in his career. During his tour on the USS New Mexico, Rickover's dedication to efficiency led to drastic changes in the daily operations of the ship. One of the least popular of these was reducing shower times for sailors onboard. Nevertheless, his leadership helped win the New Mexico three consecutive Battle "E"s, a prestigious award given to ships that are considered best in the fleet. In July of 1937, he was promoted to Lieutenant Commander and given his first and only command of a rundown minesweeper in China, the USS Fletcher. After only 3 months, Rickover was fired for cause. This simply meant his superiors did not like the job he was doing. At this point, Rickover recognized his strengths in engineering and his desire to be in a more technical position within the Navy. In October of 1937, he applied to transfer into the Engineering Duty Officer (EDO) community. [1,4] This transition would shift his career from being a combat-oriented shipboard officer to a fully dedicated naval engineer focusing on ship design, maintenance, and innovation.
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| Fig. 2: Rickover in his typical civilian attire. (Source: Wikimedia Commons) |
In his early days as an EDO, Rickover would learn the ins and outs of bureaucracy. One of his first assignments was in Washington at the Bureau of Engineering which would become the Bureau of Ships (BuShips) in 1940. His job was to lead the Design Division where work was focused on the engineering of the Navy's ships and submarines. Under the mentorship of Commander Earle Mills, a veteran naval engineer, Rickover learned how to battle bureaucracy on all fronts. From military leadership to industry to politics, he began to fight these battles and did so with diligence. [1,4] With a world war looming, these skills would prove to be very useful in his next position at BuShips.
During World War II (WWII), Rickover would head the Electrical Section of BuShips and develop his unrelenting leadership style. In this role, he would visit every damaged ship and inspect with absolute precision. Through these inspections, he soon found that the Navy was not prepared for war. He and his teams discovered many design flaws and poor engineering that would render important electrical systems totally useless even after minimal damage in combat. [4] To help address these issues he expanded the electrical division dramatically and developed interesting work habits such as the Pinks system. The pinks were carbon copies of all correspondence going in and out of his section in BuShips. He read them all and carried them with him everywhere he went. Any errors in the correspondence, even grammatical errors, resulted in a prompt reprimand for the author. He would also develop the habit of wearing civilian clothes on business trips. Typical Rickover attire can be seen in Fig. 2. This practice of wearing civilian attire for official business, as opposed to his military uniform, was particularly annoying to military leadership. One of many components that would define the rocky relationship between Rickover and the military. [1]
Though not conventional, Rickover's tactics were productive. By the end of the War, many of the issues found onboard naval vessels had been addressed. This did not come without challenge, but it was in this role where Rickover developed a knack for breaking through red tape to get the job done despite the consequences. [4,6] This sentiment is best captured in a quote from the TIME article published on 11 January 1954, stating that "sharp-tongued Hyman Rickover spurred his men to exhaustion, ripped through red tape, drove contractors into rages. He went on making enemies, but by the end of the war he had won the rank of captain. He had also won a reputation as a man who gets things done." [2] In addition to building his infamous reputation, this role gave him invaluable experience in directing large programs, dealing with bureaucracy, talent acquisition, and having to tackle with private industry among other things. [1,4] All of which would be important in the development of the naval nuclear program.
Nuclear-based propulsion had been proposed to the Navy prior to WWII based on research and conversations led by the Italian physicist, Enrico Fermi. However, after the famous Einstein letter to President Roosevelt regarding nuclear weapons development, all funding and research power was dedicated to the Manhattan Project to develop the nuclear bomb. Shortly before the war ended, a committee was stood up by the head of the Manhattan Project to report on the postwar uses of atomic energy. In the formal report, it was outlined that the research and development of naval nuclear propulsion should be an urgent focus for the United States. This, coupled with the publication of an interesting report called The Atomic Submarine , drove naval nuclear propulsion into the limelight once more. [1]
Nuclear propulsion would resolve many problems faced by the submarine community. In particular, it resolved the need to surface in order to run diesel engines to charge batteries for submerged propulsion. It also meant that the boats would not need to be refueled at sea. Some design calculations suggested that they may never need to be refueled at all. [5] Based on these reports, naval leadership sent a letter to the Secretary of War seeking more Navy involvement in nuclear programs and research. It was decided that the best way forward would be for the Navy to assign naval officers to the nuclear propulsion research being conducted at Oak Ridge National Lab (ORNL) to analyze and investigate its practical use in naval propulsion. [1]
Again, Rickover's connections would prove beneficial in pushing his career forward. In 1946, several officers were recommended to engage in this research. Rickover's name was not on this list due to his "strong personality". Despite the recommendations given, now Admiral Mills ordered Rickover to engage the research at ORNL anyway. This move was due to the relationship and reputation that Rickover developed while working under Mills at BuShips. Mills knew that Captain Rickover's personality and leadership style would push through any bureaucratic issues faced. [1]
Despite not formally being put in command of the other officers at ORNL, Rickover positioned himself to take command of the officers present. He proceeded to place very high demands on all under his leadership forcing everyone to attend lectures, work nights and weekends, and study the principles of nuclear physics and chemistry. [1,4] These high demands are characteristic of Rickover's leadership and are showcased throughout his career. The only reason he was able to make these demands and still command respect was that he also made these demands of himself. Rickover took every opportunity to expand his knowledge by attending countless lectures. He was as blunt with himself as he was towards others famously telling world-renowned physicist, Dr. Edward Teller, "I am stupid" the first time they met. [1]
Rickover would go on to learn all he could about nuclear power and began to advocate for its use in naval propulsion. He constantly brought the idea of nuclear propulsion, specifically in submarines, to his superiors and the newly formed civilian oversight committee, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). Despite his efforts, Rickover was eventually recalled from ORNL back to Washington in 1947 and assigned to so-called advisory duties to be performed out of an office that was made from a repurposed women's restroom. [7] In a way, he likely expected this pushback, he is quoted having said, "A Military organization is set up to do routine, not imaginative work. If anyone comes along with a new idea, the people in the organization naturally tend to make him conform. The first thing a man has to do is make up his mind that he is going to get his head chopped off ultimately. If he has that feeling, perhaps he can accomplish something." [7] Rickover did have this feeling and felt it necessary to push further.
While assigned in his advisory duties, Rickover did something that is considered very unpopular in the military community. He jumped the chain of command. This is when a military member goes behind the back of their immediate superiors and directly to a higher-ranking member. Rickover didn't just jump one or two superiors, he went directly to the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), the highest-ranking officer in the Navy. At the time, the CNO was the esteemed WWII veteran Admiral Chester Nimitz. Nimitz, a fellow submariner, immediately recognized the potential strategic advantages of nuclear propulsion and recommended the program to the Secretary of the Navy (SecNav). [6,7] In response, the nuclear propulsion section in BuShips was created and Rickover was appointed, again by Admiral Mills, as director of the program as well as the liaison to the AEC. [1]
Rickover and Mills immediately recognized the immense bureaucratic battle they would face between the military and civilian nuclear oversight. In response, they proposed that the AEC create a liaison division, the Naval Reactors Branch (NRB), to coordinate with Rickover's nuclear propulsion section at Buships. Mills also recommended that Rickover be named the head of NRB. [1,6,7] Mills's recommendation was not popular with the Navy, but he once again defended his position, stating that Rickover was the man "whom the Navy could depend on no matter what opposition he might encounter." [2] With this two-hat circumstance, Rickover was positioned to be both the military and civilian director for the development of naval nuclear reactors. This led to an interesting, yet incredibly efficient, system where Rickover would commonly have to write letters to himself for approvals and requests. [1,6,7] A genius move by a man who hated bureaucracy and was insistent on constant progress.
After putting himself into this role, Rickover sought to build a team of competent engineers and reactor operators through an intense interview process. In the first year, Rickover interviewed more than a thousand engineers and would approve only a select few to help design and build naval reactors. [1,6] He would carry over this methodology when determining the people responsible for operating the reactors as well. This meant that Rickover interviewed every single prospective officer and engineer who would join the naval nuclear community throughout his career.
There is much folklore surrounding the methods Rickover employed during these interviews. A well-known tactic utilized by Rickover was the chair he used to interview candidates. He had intentionally cut off the first 6 inches of the front legs forcing candidates to continuously slide forward in the chair during their interview. He did this to see if the candidates could maintain their wits when sliding off the chair while being asked difficult questions. Another example of Rickover's more interesting methods was sending candidates to a broom closet for several hours if they gave what he deemed to be stupid answers. [1] Though very unorthodox in approach, it can be argued that it has proved quite effective given the nuclear safety record under his leadership. Because of this, the tradition of the director of NRB interviewing every nuclear officer candidate and engineer is still carried out to this day. The infamous chair is on display outside the director's office.
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| Fig. 3: Rickover inspecting the USS Nautilus (SSN-571). (Source: Wikimedia Commons) |
With bureaucracy somewhat in check and a team of competent engineers, Rickover was ready to bring naval nuclear power to life. He was finally given the green light in 1951 when Congress authorized the first nuclear submarine to be built, the USS Nautilus (SSN-571). For increased efficiency, it was decided that the submarine hull would be built in parallel with a test nuclear reactor core. This test core, later designated as S1W, was developed by the Westinghouse Corporation and built to scale in the Idaho Desert. Meanwhile, the hull of the Nautilus was being laid in Groton, CT. The reactor, known as a submarine thermal reactor (STR), was based on a pressurized water reactor (PWR) design utilizing a highly enriched Uranium core and hafnium control rods. The test plant in Idaho reached criticality in March of 1953 and underwent many test evolutions to prove its viable use in submarine operations. After many successful tests, an identical reactor, later designated the S2W, was installed into the Nautilus and the boat was launched in January of 1954. [1,4] The reactor started up on December 30th that same year providing 10 MW of power to the Nautilus. Less than a month later, on January 17, 1955, the Nautilus was officially "underway on nuclear power." [8]
The speed at which this was accomplished is a great testament to Rickover's leadership. From congressional approval to the Nautilus's first underway took less than 5 years. This is especially impressive when you consider that the Nautilus was not just the first submarine, but the first naval vessel ever, to produce its power using nuclear energy. Even more impressive yet is that Rickover did not cut corners. He was known to frequently reject components from contractors for flaws and defects. He was adamant about inspecting every single boat with the utmost precision as seen in Fig. 3. He also insisted on being onboard for every initial sea trial, the first underway to test ship performance and integrity, for all nuclear vessels. [2,7,8] Despite the challenges of constant coordination with hundreds of contractors, his engineers, the Navy, Congress, and all of the other red tape in the way, Rickover achieved nuclear propulsion in record time and without compromise.
With the Nautilus, Rickover proved that nuclear power was an incredible means of naval propulsion, encouraging a shift to a nuclear-powered fleet. Less than one year after the launch of the Nautilus, Navy leadership stopped the construction of diesel submarines to transition to a solely nuclear-powered submarine fleet. [1] It also opened the discussion for nuclear-powered ships. In 1954, Congress approved the construction of the world's first nuclear powered aircraft carrier, the USS Enterprise (CVN-65). The same parallel construction method was employed and the Westinghouse A1W reactors were built at the National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho starting in 1956. The reactor design was essentially a scaled-up version of the S2W used in the Nautilus. This facility employed two reactors to power one shaft in order to match the design configuration for 1 of the 4 propulsion plants to be implemented on the Enterprise. These test cores both reached full power in September of 1959. After several tests, including some that proved that the steam plants could also provide the means to launch aircraft from the ship, the A2W was installed into the Enterprise hull. [4] In 1961, the USS Enterprise was commissioned bolstering 8 total A2W nuclear reactors providing a staggering 280,000 horsepower to the ship. [9] The Nautilus and the Enterprise are remarkable examples of Rickover's leadership, competence, and tenacity as a naval engineer.
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| Fig. 4: Rickover inspecting the reactor shell for the Shippingport Power Facility (Source: Wikimedia Commons) |
Though his efforts were originally focused entirely on naval applications, Rickover also played a major role in civilian nuclear power. The AEC was making plans to commission the first commercial nuclear plant devoted solely to peacetime purposes. [10] In reality, the first civilian power plant was intended to be a test reactor for the exploration of nuclear power applications on a large warship. Initially, this task was not given to Rickover. However, he eventually convinced Congress to put him over the project. Congress then persuaded the Joint Chiefs to approve the building of the test reactor to be used for both plutonium production and civilian electricity generation. Duquesne Light Company picked up the contract and built the Navy-inspired PWR design and power plant in Shippingport, Pennsylvania. As can be seen in Fig. 4, civilian nuclear power did not go without the characteristic Rickover inspections as well.
With Rickover in the lead chair, the Shippingport Atomic Power Station reached criticality in December of 1957 providing 60 MW of power to the civilian grid. Meaning that Rickover stewarded the successful application of nuclear energy for civilian power production only 3 years after the launch of the Nautilus. [1] However, this would not end Rickover's involvement. He knew the risks associated with poor management of the first civilian nuclear reactor. If things went bad, the conversation regarding his field could shift dramatically. To mitigate his concerns, he made an agreement that one of his NRB engineers must always be present during the operation of the plant. During its lifetime, Shippingport underwent 2 reactor swap-outs but was decommissioned starting in 1982 following the 3-mile Island Reactor incident. Over its operational timeframe, the Shippingport power plant safely produced 7.4 billion kWh of energy. [10] Thus, Rickover's management and direction aided the successful development and operation of civilian and naval nuclear power alike.
The United States nuclear navy has a world-renowned safety record due to Rickover's leadership and oversight. However, this was not without incident. A significant event in U.S. submarine naval history is the loss of the USS Thresher. On the morning of April 10th, 1963, the Thresher dove to her maximum operating depth. A test that the Thresher had conducted at least 40 times prior. Despite its previous successes, the Thresher would never return to the surface on this fateful day. 129 men, both civilian and military, lost their lives. The Thresher was the first U.S. nuclear submarine lost at sea and one of the worst submarine losses in history. [1] A thorough review was conducted and it was found the major loss was due partly to inadequate welding techniques and poor quality control employed during submarine construction. The initial issue that sparked this chain of events, however, was found to be an emergency shutdown of the reactor that could not be restarted quickly enough. It was determined that the procedure required to restart the reactor was too slow and complicated, leaving the Thresher without power in a critical time of need. [1,11]
Rickover took this loss very hard but also took it head-on. He and his team immediately began an overhaul of the reactor startup procedure and system to decrease the restart time in the case of an emergency shutdown. The systems for emergency surfacing were also redesigned and many new protocols and operating procedures were implemented under the moniker SUBSAFE. These protocols are so comprehensive that they are still followed to this day in the nuclear navy. [11] Several years later in 1968, the USS Scorpion would become the 2nd U.S. nuclear-powered submarine to be lost to the sea, leading to the loss of its entire 99-man crew. [1] The details of its loss are less recorded and less conclusive than that of the USS Thresher.
The nuclear navy's history is not absent of tragedy. However, when considering the design and operation of the reactors with regard to the radioactive impact on the environment, an impressive nuclear safety record has been established by the U.S. Navy's nuclear program under Rickover and beyond. This also takes into consideration the incidents listed above which had a minimal environmental impact according to congressionally ordered studies of the seabed surrounding the wreckages. [1] In addition to this, through these incidents, Rickover displayed the necessity to learn from mistakes and improve systems and procedures so that further losses did not occur within the community.
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| Fig. 5: Official Navy photo of Admiral Hyman Rickover. (Source: Wikimedia Commons) |
Rickover's successes were not solely due to his technical competence and strong personality. They also stemmed from his ability to play the political game in Washington and bolster his public image. One of the first instances, where this was displayed, was during the years of the Nautilus's production when he was passed over for promotion to admiral twice. In the military, this is a death sentence for a naval officer's career. Rickover's personality, disdain for regulations, and consistent disregard for military norms proved to be rather displeasing to the military ranks. This, alongside the fact that there are very limited spots for engineering officers to be promoted to admiral, it seemed that Rickover's naval career would be coming to a close. However, with his popularity in the public domain, support from the engineers in NRB and BuShips, and, most importantly, the support of members of Congress, a movement was started that could not be ignored by the Navy. Based on this pressure, the SecNav ordered a special selection board that would officially promote Rickover to the rank of Admiral (See Fig. 5) on July 1st, 1953. [1,4]
This is merely the beginning of Rickover's relationship with Congress. After a trip to Russia, Rickover spoke to the House Committee of Appropriations regarding his trip. He spoke predominantly on the shortfalls of American education, a subject he was incredibly passionate about even into the later years of his life. He would be invited back many times due to his candor and honesty and was asked questions well beyond the scope of his work to include his concept of man's purpose in life. He also recognized the power of vanity in politics and would offer interesting things such as polar water or chunks of polar ice collected by submarines for political favor. [1] He would also commonly offer the wives of elected officials the opportunity to sign the hull of the submarines or even christen them at very publicized and grandiose ceremonies. He even went as far as to name several submarines after politicians who loyally supported his cause. These are all examples of a strategy that Rickover adopted where he felt that congress wanted to give money to people, not institutions. [1] A strategy that was rather successful.
There are many examples of this strategy playing out. One was in the early months of 1958; a committee was discussing the allocation of 35 million dollars to develop a shipboard nuclear power plant for destroyers. There were no questions asked at this hearing, only words of flattery and admiration for the admiral, and the funds were speedily granted. Another victory came in 1974 when legislation was passed that stipulated all future naval vessels be nuclear powered unless the President of the United States justified to Congress a reason not to utilize a Rickover reactor. [1,6]
My favorite example of Rickover's Congressional influence was in one of the many attempts by the Navy to have him dismissed. Rickover took a defiant stand in congress against the Navy's plan to adopt gas turbine engines for shipboard propulsion. Because of his testimony, the SecNav under orders by the President and the Secretary of Defense, presented a plan to the chairman of the Joint Committee of Atomic Energy to have Rickover removed. The Chairman asked that the SecNav return in a few days to discuss with the committee in private. When the SecNav arrived at the Chairman's office, he found not only the members of the committee but also Rickover who calmly says to the SecNav, "I understand you are trying to get me fired." The committee then stated firmly that Rickover would not be relieved beginning a routine where every two years the committee would remind the AEC and U.S. Navy that Rickover must be kept on and granted an extension of service. This would continue well beyond the allowable age limits of active military duty until 1981. [2] This, and many of the accomplishments throughout his career, simply would not have been possible without the connections and relationships he had developed with many politicians on Captial Hill.
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| Fig. 6: USS Hyman G. Rickover (SSN-709) named in honor of the "Father of the Nuclear Navy". Rickover was in attendance at its commissioning. (Source: Wikimedia Commons) |
The Rickover era would eventually come to a close. After 63 years of naval service, the longest active service of any U.S. Naval Officer, Rickover was finally forced to retire under the Reagan Administration in 1981. He was a man with humble beginnings, an unmatched work ethic, a hatred for bureaucracy, and an insistence on getting the job done. Rickover's behavior and demeanor did not align with that of the typical military officer and his viewpoints rarely aligned with those of the military institutions he worked within. But his ability to play politics, challenge his subordinates, and constantly further education for himself and others led to the development of the world's first naval nuclear propulsion plant and a safely operating nuclear fleet with more than 150 warships and many civilian power plants operating on nuclear energy. [6] Because of his successes, many of his safety guidelines, basic reactor designs, and selection processes are still in place to this day. Throughout his service, Rickover received many awards including the Medal of Freedom from President Jimmy Carter, a former submariner in Rickover's nuclear navy. [6,12] He was also the first person to receive two Congressional Gold Medals. In 1975, Rickover Hall was commissioned as the engineering building at the United States Naval Academy. [12] One of the final honors awarded to him was an award rarely given to a living person. The fast-attack submarine SSN-709 (See Fig. 6) was officially named the USS Hyman G. Rickover and was commissioned in 1984. In 2015, a 2nd submarine, SSN-795, was also named in his honor. Considering all of Rickover's efforts, diligence, and contributions throughout his 63 years of service, it becomes increasingly obvious how such an unconventional man will go down in history as "the Father of the Nuclear Navy".
© Sean Bernstel. The author warrants that the work is the author's own and that Stanford University provided no input other than typesetting and referencing guidelines. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author.
[1] T. B. Allen and N. Polmar, Rickover: The Father of the Nuclear Navy (Potomac Books, 2007)
[2] K. Holt, "Admiral Rickover Brought the Nuclear Age to the US Navy," Examiner, 2 Aug 15.
[3] The Lucky Bag 1922 (U.S. Naval Academy, 1922).
[4] F. Duncan, Rickover and the Nuclear Navy: The Discipline of Technology (Naval Institute Press, 1989).
[5] H.-J. Kim, "Nautilus: The First Nuclear Submarine," Physics 241, Stanford University, Winter 2018.
[6] J. W. Finney, "Rickover, Father of Nuclear Navy, Dies at 86," New York Times, 10 Jul 86.
[7] R. Wallace, "A Deluge of Honors for an Exasperating Admiral," Life Magazine, 8 Sep 58.
[8] T. Reid, "The USS Nautilus (SSN-571)," Physics 241, Stanford University, Winter 2014.
[9] D. Hernandez, "History of the Nuclear Navy," Physics 241, Stanford University, Winter 2015.
[10] J. Craddock III, "The Shippingport Atomic Power Station," Physics 241, Stanford University, Winter 2016.
[11] C. Furrer, "Nuclear Submarine: Safety Concerns and Solutions," Physics 241, Stanford University, Winter 2018.
[12] R. Claytor, "Admiral Rickover, A Personal Memoir," U.S. Naval Institute, August 2007.
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